LING Z C , JOLLIFF B L , WANG A , et al. Correlated compositional and mineralogical investigations at the Chang'e-3 landing site [J ] . Nature Communications , 2015 , 6 ( 1 ): 1 - 9 .

BALARAM B , CANHAM T , DUNCAN C , et al. Mars helicopter technology demonstrator [C ] //Proceedings of 2018 AIAA Atmospheric Flight Mechanics Conference. Reston, VA, US:AIAA , 2018 : 0023 .

PICARDI G , CHELLAPURATH M , IACOPONI S , et al . Bioinspired underwater legged robot for seabed exploration with low environmental disturbance [J ] . Science Robotics , 2020 , 5 ( 42 ): eaaz1012 . DOI: 10.1126/scirobotics.aaz1012 http://doi.org/10.1126/scirobotics.aaz1012 https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/scirobotics.aaz1012 https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/scirobotics.aaz1012 An underwater legged robot, inspired by benthic animals, opens new perspectives for seabed exploration.

LI G R , CHEN X P , ZHOU F H , et al. Self-powered soft robot in the Mariana Trench [J ] . Nature , 2021 , 591 ( 7848 ): 66 - 71 . DOI: 10.1038/s41586-020-03153-z http://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-020-03153-z

AN R C , GUO S X , YU Y H , et al . Multiple bio-inspired father-son underwater robot for underwater target object acquisition and identification [J ] . Micromachines , 2021 , 13 ( 1 ): 25 . DOI: 10.3390/mi13010025 http://doi.org/10.3390/mi13010025 https://www.mdpi.com/2072-666X/13/1/25 https://www.mdpi.com/2072-666X/13/1/25 Underwater target acquisition and identification performed by manipulators having broad application prospects and value in the field of marine development. Conventional manipulators are too heavy to be used for small target objects and unsuitable for shallow sea working. In this paper, a bio-inspired Father–Son Underwater Robot System (FURS) is designed for underwater target object image acquisition and identification. Our spherical underwater robot (SUR), as the father underwater robot of the FURS, has the ability of strong dynamic balance and good maneuverability, can realize approach the target area quickly, and then cruise and surround the target object. A coiling mechanism was installed on SUR for the recycling and release of the son underwater robot. A Salamandra-inspired son underwater robot is used as the manipulator of the FURS, which is connected to the spherical underwater robot by a tether. The son underwater robot has multiple degrees of freedom and realizes both swimming and walking movement modes. The son underwater robot can move to underwater target objects. The vision system is installed to enable the FURS to acquire the image information of the target object with the aid of the camera, and also to identify the target object. Finally, verification experiments are conducted in an indoor water tank and outdoor swimming pool conditions to verify the effectiveness of the proposed in this paper.

AJANIC E , FEROSKHAN M , MINTCHEV S , et al . Bioinspired wing and tail morphing extends drone flight capabilities [J ] . Science Robotics , 2020 , 5 ( 47 ): eabc2897 . DOI: 10.1126/scirobotics.abc2897 http://doi.org/10.1126/scirobotics.abc2897 https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/scirobotics.abc2897 https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/scirobotics.abc2897 The combination of bioinspired morphing wing and tail made of artificial feathers improves the flight performance of drones.

PHAN H V , PARK H C . Mechanisms of collision recovery in flying beetles and flapping-wing robots [J ] . Science , 2020 , 370 ( 6521 ): 1214 - 1219 . DOI: 10.1126/science.abd3285 http://doi.org/10.1126/science.abd3285 At rest, beetles fold and tuck their hindwings under the elytra. For flight, the hindwings are deployed through a series of unfolding configurations that are passively driven by flapping forces. The folds lock into place as the wing fully unfolds and thereafter operates as a flat membrane to generate the aerodynamic forces. We show that in the rhinoceros beetle (), these origami-like folds serve a crucial shock-absorbing function during in-flight wing collisions. When the wing collides with an object, it collapses along the folds and springs back in place within a single stroke. Collisions are thus dampened, helping the beetle to promptly recover the flight. We implemented this mechanism on a beetle-inspired wing on a flapping-wing robot, thereby enabling it to fly safely after collisions.Copyright © 2020 The Authors, some rights reserved; exclusive licensee American Association for the Advancement of Science. No claim to original U.S. Government Works.

HELPS T , ROMERO C , TAGHAVI M , et al. Liquid-amplified zipping actuators for micro-air vehicles with transmission-free flapping [J ] . Science Robotics , 2022 , 7 ( 63 ): eabi8189 . DOI: 10.1126/scirobotics.abi8189 http://doi.org/10.1126/scirobotics.abi8189 https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/scirobotics.abi8189 https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/scirobotics.abi8189 Flapping micro-air vehicles (MAVs) can access a wide range of locations, including confined spaces such as the inside of industrial plants and collapsed buildings, and offer high maneuverability and tolerance to disturbances. However, current flapping MAVs require transmission systems between their actuators and wings, which introduce energetic losses and additional mass, hindering performance. Here, we introduce a high-performance electrostatic flapping actuation system, the liquid-amplified zipping actuator (LAZA), which induces wing movement by direct application of liquid-amplified electrostatic forces at the wing root, eliminating the requirement of any transmission system and their associated downsides. The LAZA allows for accurate control of flapping frequency and amplitude, exhibits no variation in performance over more than 1 million actuation cycles, and delivers peak and average specific powers of 200 and 124 watts per kilogram, respectively, exceeding mammalian and insect flight muscle and on par with modern flapping MAV actuation systems. The inclusion of 50-millimeter-long passively pitching wings in a dragonfly-sized LAZA flapping system allowed the rectification of net directional thrust up to 5.73 millinewtons. This thrust was achieved while consuming only 243 milliwatts of electrical power, implying a thrust-to-power ratio of 23.6 newtons per kilowatt, similar to state-of-the-art flapping MAVs, helicopter rotors, and commercial drone motors. Last, a horizontally moving LAZA flapping system supported by a taut nylon wire was able to accelerate from at-rest and travel at speeds up to 0.71 meters per second. The LAZA enables lightweight, high-performance transmission-free flapping MAVs for long-term remote exploration and search-and-rescue missions.

BAINES R , KRAMER-BOTTIGLIO R . Turtle-like robot adapts its shape and behavior to move in different environments [J ] . Nature , 2022 , 610 : 283 - 289 . DOI: 10.1038/s41586-022-05188-w http://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-022-05188-w

GALATI R , MANTRIOTA G , REINA G . Adaptive heading correction for an industrial heavy-duty omnidirectional robot [J ] . Scientific Reports , 2022 , 12 ( 1 ): 1 - 16 . DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-99269-x http://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-99269-x The work mainly focused on a validation of the method for determining the content of salicylic acid and individual unknown impurities in new pharmaceutical product—tablets containing: 75, 100 or 150 mg of acetylsalicylic acid and glycine in the amount of 40 mg for each dosage. The separation of the components was carried out by means of HPLC, using a Waters Symmetry C18 column (4.6 × 250 mm, 5 μm) as the stationary phase. The mobile phase consisted of a mixture of 85% orthophosphoric acid, acetonitrile and purified water (2:400:600 V/V/V). Detection was carried out at a wavelength of 237 nm, with a constant flow rate of 1.0 ml min−1. In order to verify the method, linearity, precision (repeatability and reproducibility), accuracy, specificity, range, robustness, system precision, stability of the test and standard solution, limit of quantification and forced degradation were determined. Validation tests were performed in accordance with ICH (International Conference on Harmonisation of Technical Requirements for Registration of Pharmaceuticals for Human Use) guidelines. The method was validated successfully. It was confirmed that the method in a tested range of 0.005–0.40% salicylic acid with respect to acetylsalicylic acid content is linear, precise and accurate.

RUPPERT F , BADRI-SPRÖWITZ A . Learning plastic matching of robot dynamics in closed-loop central pattern generators [J ] . Nature Machine Intelligence , 2022 , 4 ( 7 ): 652 - 660 . DOI: 10.1038/s42256-022-00505-4 http://doi.org/10.1038/s42256-022-00505-4 Animals achieve agile locomotion performance with reduced control effort and energy efficiency by leveraging compliance in their muscles and tendons. However, it is not known how biological locomotion controllers learn to leverage the intelligence embodied in their leg mechanics. Here we present a framework to match control patterns and mechanics based on the concept of short-term elasticity and long-term plasticity. Inspired by animals, we design a robot, Morti, with passive elastic legs. The quadruped robot Morti is controlled by a bioinspired closed-loop central pattern generator that is designed to elastically mitigate short-term perturbations using sparse contact feedback. By minimizing the amount of corrective feedback on the long term, Morti learns to match the controller to its mechanics and learns to walk within 1 h. By leveraging the advantages of its mechanics, Morti improves its energy efficiency by 42% without explicit minimization in the cost function.

SHIN J P , SON D H , KIM Y H , et al. Design exploration and comparative analysis of tail shape of tri-wheel-based stair-climbing robotic platform [J ] . Scientific Reports , 2022 , 12 ( 1 ): 1 - 19 . DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-99269-x http://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-99269-x The work mainly focused on a validation of the method for determining the content of salicylic acid and individual unknown impurities in new pharmaceutical product—tablets containing: 75, 100 or 150 mg of acetylsalicylic acid and glycine in the amount of 40 mg for each dosage. The separation of the components was carried out by means of HPLC, using a Waters Symmetry C18 column (4.6 × 250 mm, 5 μm) as the stationary phase. The mobile phase consisted of a mixture of 85% orthophosphoric acid, acetonitrile and purified water (2:400:600 V/V/V). Detection was carried out at a wavelength of 237 nm, with a constant flow rate of 1.0 ml min−1. In order to verify the method, linearity, precision (repeatability and reproducibility), accuracy, specificity, range, robustness, system precision, stability of the test and standard solution, limit of quantification and forced degradation were determined. Validation tests were performed in accordance with ICH (International Conference on Harmonisation of Technical Requirements for Registration of Pharmaceuticals for Human Use) guidelines. The method was validated successfully. It was confirmed that the method in a tested range of 0.005–0.40% salicylic acid with respect to acetylsalicylic acid content is linear, precise and accurate.

ZE Q J , WU S , NISHIKAWA J , et al. Soft robotic origami crawler [J ] . Science Advances , 2022 , 8 ( 13 ): eabm7834 . DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.abm7834 http://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.abm7834 https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.abm7834 https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.abm7834 Biomimetic soft robotic crawlers have attracted extensive attention in various engineering fields, owing to their adaptivity to different terrains. Earthworm-like crawlers realize locomotion through in-plane contraction, while inchworm-like crawlers exhibit out-of-plane bending-based motions. Although in-plane contraction crawlers demonstrate effective motion in confined spaces, miniaturization is challenging because of limited actuation methods and complex structures. Here, we report a magnetically actuated small-scale origami crawler with in-plane contraction. The contraction mechanism is achieved through a four-unit Kresling origami assembly consisting of two Kresling dipoles with two-level symmetry. Magnetic actuation is used to provide appropriate torque distribution, enabling a small-scale and untethered robot with both crawling and steering capabilities. The crawler can overcome large resistances from severely confined spaces by its anisotropic and magnetically tunable structural stiffness. The multifunctionality of the crawler is explored by using the internal cavity of the crawler for drug storage and release. The magnetic origami crawler can potentially serve as a minimally invasive device for biomedical applications.

ROUČEK T , PECKA M , ČÍŽEK P , et al. Darpa subterranean challenge:multi-robotic exploration of underground environments [C ] //Proceedings of International Conference on Modelling and Simulation for Autonomous Systems. Cham , Germany : Springer , 2019 : 274 - 290 .

周梦如 , 陈慧岩 , 熊光明 , 等 . 越野环境下无人履带平台的道路可通行性分析 [J ] . 兵工学报 , 2022 , 43 ( 10 ): 2485 - 2496 . DOI: 10.12382/bgxb.2021.0824 http://doi.org/10.12382/bgxb.2021.0824 针对越野环境下道路特征模糊、地形复杂的问题，基于相机与激光雷达融合感知的方案，提出一种针对无人履带平台道路可通行性分析方法。基于图像语义分割获取语义点云，进行可通行区域的粗提取；利用三维点云描述地面几何特征，同时考虑履带平台的通过性约束，对道路的可通行性进行分析；生成包含道路表面属性和地面几何信息的三维可通行性栅格地图。所提方法对于平台可通行性的定义反映了平台-环境的强耦合关系。试验结果表明，算法能够在线稳定地建立可通行性地图，对平台规划控制具有良好的引导作用，有利于无人履带平台在复杂越野环境下的稳定通行。

ZHOU M R , CHEN H Y , XIONG G M , et al. Road traversability analysis of unmanned tracked platform in off-road environment [J ] . Acta Armamentarii , 2022 , 43 ( 10 ): 2485 - 2496 . (in Chinese) DOI: 10.12382/bgxb.2021.0824 http://doi.org/10.12382/bgxb.2021.0824 To deal with the problems of fuzzy road features and complex terrain in off-road environment, a road traversability analysis method for unmanned tracked platforms is proposed based on the fusion scheme of camera and lidar for sensing. Firstly, the semantic point cloud is obtained based on image semantic segmentation, and the passable area is roughly extracted. Then the three-dimensional point cloud is used to describe the ground geometric features, and road traversability is analyzed considering the trafficability constraints of the tracked platform. Finally, a three-dimensional traversable grid map containing road surface attributes and ground geometry information is generated. The definition of platform traversability in the proposed method reflects the strong coupling relationship between the platform and the environment. The experimental results show that the algorithm can stably establish the traversable map, provide good guidance for platform planning and control, and is conducive to the stable trafficability of the unmanned tracked platform in the complex off-road environment.

李春明 , 吴维 , 郭智蔷 , 等 . 履带车辆纵向与垂向耦合动力学模型及功率特性 [J ] . 兵工学报 , 2021 , 42 ( 3 ): 449 - 458 . DOI: 10.3969/j.issn.1000-1093.2021.03.001 http://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1000-1093.2021.03.001 越野工况履带车辆动力学是车辆越野行驶能力预测的理论基础。考虑高机动履带车辆越野行驶纵向运动和垂向运动耦合效应，提出履带车辆纵向与垂向耦合动力学建模方法。建立车辆耦合动力学模型，对车辆在典型路面上的行驶性能进行仿真，并进行实车测试验证，进而量化分析履带车辆系统的功率特性。仿真结果表明：该模型可以表征车辆在不同类型路面上行驶的动力学响应特性；在越野工况下，车体垂向、俯仰等运动将消耗部分功率，对车辆行驶速度提升有一定影响；在越野路面上行驶的履带车辆瞬时非纵向运动功率数值波动范围大，随着路面条件变差以及速度提高，非纵向运动功率占总输入功率比例增加，对总功率的需求也越大，限制了驱动功率的有效利用。研究结果可用于高机动履带车辆动力学模型构建以及车辆功率流分析。

LI C M , WU W , GUO Z Q , et al. Longitudinal and vertical coupled dynamic model and power characteristics of tracked vehicle [J ] . Acta Armamentarii , 2021 , 42 ( 3 ): 449 - 458 . (in Chinese) DOI: 10.3969/j.issn.1000-1093.2021.03.001 http://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1000-1093.2021.03.001 The dynamics of tracked vehicle in the off-road condition is the basis of the prediction of the off-road driving ability. A longitudinal and vertical coupled dynamic modeling method of tracked vehicle is presented，in which the coupling effect of longitudinal and vertical motion of high speed tracked vehicle is considered. A vehicle coupling dynamic model is established. The driving performance of vehicle on the typical road was simulated and verified in the real vehicle test. On this basis，the power flow characteristics of the tracked vehicle were analyzed. The simulated results indicate that the proposed model can be used to calculate the influence of the different road conditions on the vehicle driving performance. In the off-road condition，the road roughness makes the body vertical，pitching and other movements consume part of the power，and then have a certain impact on the speed of the vehicle. The instantaneous non-driving power of the tracked vehicle fluctuates widely. With the deterioration in the road conditions and the increase in speed，the ratio of non-driving power to total input power increases.The demand for the total power increases，which limits the effective use of the driving power.The results can be used for the dynamic model construction and the power flow analysis of high-speed tracked vehicles.

NYGAARD T F , MARTIN C P , TORRESEN J , et al. Real-world embodied AI through a morphologically adaptive quadruped robot [J ] . Nature Machine Intelligence , 2021 , 3 ( 5 ): 410 - 419 . DOI: 10.1038/s42256-021-00320-3 http://doi.org/10.1038/s42256-021-00320-3

ZHAO M J , ANZAI T , SHI F , et al. Design, modeling, and control of an aerial robot dragon:a dual-rotor-embedded multilink robot with the ability of multi-degree-of-freedom aerial transformation [J ] . IEEE Robotics and Automation Letters , 2018 , 3 ( 2 ): 1176 - 1183 . DOI: 10.1109/LRA.2018.2793344 http://doi.org/10.1109/LRA.2018.2793344 http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/8258850/ http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/8258850/

DING L , ZHOU R Y , YUAN Y F , et al . A 2-year locomotive exploration and scientific investigation of the lunar farside by the Yutu-2 rover [J ] . Science Robotics , 2022 , 7 ( 62 ).DOI: 10.1126/scirobotics.abj6660 https://dx.doi.org/10.1126/scirobotics.abj6660 .

YANG W Q , WANG L G , SONG B F . Dove:a biomimetic flapping-wing micro air vehicle [J ] . International Journal of Micro Air Vehicles , 2018 , 10 ( 1 ): 70 - 84 . DOI: 10.1177/1756829317734837 http://doi.org/10.1177/1756829317734837 http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1756829317734837 http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1756829317734837 This paper describes the design and development of the Dove, a flapping-wing micro air vehicle (FWMAV), which was developed in Northwestern Polytechnical University. FWMAVs have attracted international attentions since the past two decades. Since some achievements have been obtained, such as the capability of supporting an air vehicle to fly, our research goal was to design an FWMAV that has the ability to accomplish a task. Main investigations were presented in this paper, including the flexible wing design, the flapping mechanism design, and the on-board avionics development. The current Dove has a mass of 220 g, a wingspan of 50 cm, and the ability of operating fully autonomously, flying lasts half an hour, and transmitting live stabilized color video to a ground station over 4 km away.

ZHOU X , WEN X Y , WANG Z P , et al . warm of micro flying robots in the wild [J ] . Science Robotics , 2022 , 7 ( 66 ): eabm5954 . DOI: 10.1126/scirobotics.abm5954 http://doi.org/10.1126/scirobotics.abm5954 https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/scirobotics.abm5954 https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/scirobotics.abm5954 Aerial robots are widely deployed, but highly cluttered environments such as dense forests remain inaccessible to drones and even more so to swarms of drones. In these scenarios, previously unknown surroundings and narrow corridors combined with requirements of swarm coordination can create challenges. To enable swarm navigation in the wild, we develop miniature but fully autonomous drones with a trajectory planner that can function in a timely and accurate manner based on limited information from onboard sensors. The planning problem satisfies various task requirements including flight efficiency, obstacle avoidance, and inter-robot collision avoidance, dynamical feasibility, swarm coordination, and so on, thus realizing an extensible planner. Furthermore, the proposed planner deforms trajectory shapes and adjusts time allocation synchronously based on spatial-temporal joint optimization. A high-quality trajectory thus can be obtained after exhaustively exploiting the solution space within only a few milliseconds, even in the most constrained environment. The planner is finally integrated into the developed palm-sized swarm platform with onboard perception, localization, and control. Benchmark comparisons validate the superior performance of the planner in trajectory quality and computing time. Various real-world field experiments demonstrate the extensibility of our system. Our approach evolves aerial robotics in three aspects: capability of cluttered environment navigation, extensibility to diverse task requirements, and coordination as a swarm without external facilities.

LI G R , CHEN X P , ZHOU F H , et al. Self-powered soft robot in the Mariana Trench [J ] . Nature , 2021 , 591 : 66 - 71 . DOI: 10.1038/s41586-020-03153-z http://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-020-03153-z

YANG X B , WANG T M , LIANG J H , et al. Survey on the novel hybrid aquatic-aerial amphibious aircraft: aquatic unmanned aerial vehicle (AquaUAV) [J ] . Progress in Aerospace Sciences , 2015 , 74 : 131 - 151 . DOI: 10.1016/j.paerosci.2014.12.005 http://doi.org/10.1016/j.paerosci.2014.12.005 https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0376042114001122 https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0376042114001122

LI L , WANG S Q , ZHANG Y Y , et al . Aerial-aquatic robots capable of crossing the air-water boundary and hitchhiking on surfaces [J ] . Science Robotics , 2022 , 7 ( 66 ): eabm6695 . DOI: 10.1126/scirobotics.abm6695 http://doi.org/10.1126/scirobotics.abm6695 https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/scirobotics.abm6695 https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/scirobotics.abm6695 \n Many real-world applications for robots—such as long-term aerial and underwater observation, cross-medium operations, and marine life surveys—require robots with the ability to move between the air-water boundary. Here, we describe an aerial-aquatic hitchhiking robot that is self-contained for flying, swimming, and attaching to surfaces in both air and water and that can seamlessly move between the two. We describe this robot’s redundant, hydrostatically enhanced hitchhiking device, inspired by the morphology of a remora (\n Echeneis naucrates\n ) disc, which works in both air and water. As with the biological remora disc, this device has separate lamellar compartments for redundant sealing, which enables the robot to achieve adhesion and hitchhike with only partial disc attachment. The self-contained, rotor-based aerial-aquatic robot, which has passively morphing propellers that unfold in the air and fold underwater, can cross the air-water boundary in 0.35 second. The robot can perform rapid attachment and detachment on challenging surfaces both in air and under water, including curved, rough, incomplete, and biofouling surfaces, and achieve long-duration adhesion with minimal oscillation. We also show that the robot can attach to and hitchhike on moving surfaces. In field tests, we show that the robot can record video in both media and move objects across the air/water boundary in a mountain stream and the ocean. We envision that this study can pave the way for future robots with autonomous biological detection, monitoring, and tracking capabilities in a wide variety of aerial-aquatic environments.\n

张建 , 周俊杰 , 苑士华 , 等 . 水陆两栖仿生机器人构形、运动机理及建模控制综述 [J ] . 机器人 , 2023 , 45 ( 3 ): 367 - 384 . DOI: 10.13973/j.cnki.robot.210428 http://doi.org/10.13973/j.cnki.robot.210428 从水陆两栖机器人本体构形、推进动力学建模、多环境运动控制等方面对水陆两栖机器人近期的研究现状进行综述。首先,按照两栖机器人结构类型将两栖机器人分为腿式推进、轮腿/鳍复合式推进、蛇形推进、球形两栖机器人等;然后,介绍两栖机器人在水、陆环境中推进的动力学建模方法,以及目前常用于水陆两栖机器人的多环境运动控制策略。最后归纳得到两栖机器人的关键技术及未来发展方向,包括新型推进机构设计、系统建模、推进机理研究和多模态自主控制技术等。

ZHANG J , ZHOU J J , YUAN S H , et al. Review of configuration, motion mechanism, modeling and control of amphibious bionic robots [J ] . Robot , 2023 , 45 ( 3 ): 367 - 384 . (in Chinese) DOI: 10.13973/j.cnki.robot.210428 http://doi.org/10.13973/j.cnki.robot.210428 The recent research status of amphibious robots is summarized from the aspects of body configuration, propulsion dynamics modeling, and multi-environment motion control. Amphibious robots are categorized according to their actuating mechanisms, including leg propulsion, wheel-leg/fin hybrid propulsion, serpentine propulsion, spherical propulsion. The dynamic modeling method of amphibious robot propelling in water and land environments is introduced, as well as the multi-environment motion control strategy commonly used in amphibious robots. The key technologies and future development directions of amphibious robots are summarized, including new propulsion mechanism design, system modeling, propulsion mechanism research, and multi-modal autonomous control technology.

KARAKASILIOTIS K , THANDIACKAL R , MELO K , et al. From cineradiography to biorobots:an approach for designing robots to emulate and study animal locomotion [J ] . Journal of the Royal Society Interface , 2016 , 13 ( 119 ): 20151089 . DOI: 10.1098/rsif.2015.1089 http://doi.org/10.1098/rsif.2015.1089 https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsif.2015.1089 https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsif.2015.1089 Robots are increasingly used as scientific tools to investigate animal locomotion. However, designing a robot that properly emulates the kinematic and dynamic properties of an animal is difficult because of the complexity of musculoskeletal systems and the limitations of current robotics technology. Here, we propose a design process that combines high-speed cineradiography, optimization, dynamic scaling, three-dimensional printing, high-end servomotors and a tailored dry-suit to construct Pleurobot: a salamander-like robot that closely mimics its biological counterpart,Pleurodeles waltl. Our previous robots helped us test and confirm hypotheses on the interaction between the locomotor neuronal networks of the limbs and the spine to generate basic swimming and walking gaits. With Pleurobot, we demonstrate a design process that will enable studies of richer motor skills in salamanders. In particular, we are interested in how these richer motor skills can be obtained by extending our spinal cord models with the addition of more descending pathways and more detailed limb central pattern generator networks. Pleurobot is a dynamically scaled amphibious salamander robot with a large number of actuated degrees of freedom (DOFs: 27 in total). Because of our design process, the robot can capture most of the animal's DOFs and range of motion, especially at the limbs. We demonstrate the robot's abilities by imposing raw kinematic data, extracted from X-ray videos, to the robot's joints for basic locomotor behaviours in water and on land. The robot closely matches the behaviour of the animal in terms of relative forward speeds and lateral displacements. Ground reaction forces during walking also resemble those of the animal. Based on our results, we anticipate that future studies on richer motor skills in salamanders will highly benefit from Pleurobot's design.

BAINES R , PATIBALLA S K , BOOTH J , et al. Multi-environment robotic transitions through adaptive morphogenesis [J ] . Nature , 2022 , 610 : 283 - 289 . DOI: 10.1038/s41586-022-05188-w http://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-022-05188-w

王建中 , 游玉 , 王鹤 . 变结构陆空机器人自主跨域越障技术研究 [J ] . 北京理工大学学报 , 2021 , 41 ( 8 ): 840 - 846 .

WANG J Z , YOU Y , WANG H . Autonomous cross-domain obstacle negotiation research of a variable structure land-air robot [J ] . Transactions of Beijing Institute of Technology , 2021 , 41 ( 8 ): 840 - 846 . (in Chinese)

HSIEH M A , COWLEY A , KELLER J F , et al. Adaptive teams of autonomous aerial and ground robots for situational awareness [J ] . Journal of Field Robotics , 2007 , 24 ( 11/12 ): 991 - 1014 . DOI: 10.1002/rob.v24:11/12 http://doi.org/10.1002/rob.v24:11/12 https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/toc/15564967/24/11-12 https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/toc/15564967/24/11-12

MARCONI L , MELCHIORRI C , BEETZ M , et al. The SHERPA project: Smart collaboration between humans and ground-aerial robots for improving rescuing activities in alpine environments [C ] //Proceedings of 2012 IEEE International Symposium on Safety, Security, and Rescue Robotics. Washington, D. C. , US : IEEE , 2012 : 1 - 4 .

DEUSDADO P , PINTO E , GUEDES M , et al . An aerial-ground robotic team for systematic soil and biota sampling in estuarine mudflats [C ] //Proceedings of Robot 2015: Second Iberian Robotics Conference:Advances in Robotics. Berlin , Germany : Springer , 2016 , 2 : 15 - 26 .

何玉庆 , 秦天一 , 王楠 . 跨域协同:无人系统技术发展和应用新趋势 [J ] . 无人系统技术 , 2021 , 4 ( 4 ): 1 - 13 .

HE Y Q , QIN T Y , WANG N . Cross-domain collaboration: new trends in the development and application of unmanned systems technology [J ] . Unmanned Systems Technology , 2021 , 4 ( 4 ): 1 - 13 . (in Chinese)

YIN P , GU F , LI D C , et al. GPU-based heuristic escape for outdoor large scale registration [C ] //Proceedings of 2016 IEEE International Conference on Real-time Computing and Robotics. Washington, D. C., US:IEEE , 2016 : 260 - 265 .

HUTTER M , GEHRING C , JUD D , et al. Anymal-a highly mobile and dynamic quadrupedal robot [C ] //Proceedings of 2016 IEEE/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems. Daejeon, Korea:IEEE , 2016 : 38 - 44 .

SEMINI C , TSAGARAKIS N G , GUGLIELMINO E , et al . Design of HyQ-a hydraulically and electrically actuated quadruped robot [J ] . Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part I:Journal of Systems and Control Engineering , 2011 , 225 ( 6 ): 831 - 849 . DOI: 10.1177/0959651811402275 http://doi.org/10.1177/0959651811402275 http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0959651811402275 http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0959651811402275 A new versatile hydraulically powered quadruped robot ( HyQ) has been developed to serve as a platform to study not only highly dynamic motions, such as running and jumping, but also careful navigation over very rough terrain. HyQ stands 1 m tall, weighs roughly 90 kg, and features 12 torque-controlled joints powered by a combination of hydraulic and electric actuators. The hydraulic actuation permits the robot to perform powerful and dynamic motions that are hard to achieve with more traditional electrically actuated robots. This paper describes design and specifications of the robot and presents details on the hardware of the quadruped platform, such as the mechanical design of the four articulated legs and of the torso frame, and the configuration of the hydraulic power system. Results from the first walking experiments are presented, along with test studies using a previously built prototype leg.

FOLKERTSMA G A , KIM S , STRAMIGIOLI S . Parallel stiffness in a bounding quadruped with flexible spine [C ] //Proceedings of 2012 IEEE/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems. Vilamoura-Algarve , Portugal : IEEE , 2012 : 2210 - 2215 .

WENSING P M , WANG A , SEOK S , et al. Proprioceptive actuator design in the MIT cheetah: Impact mitigation and high-bandwidth physical interaction for dynamic legged robots [J ] . IEEE Transactions on Robotics , 2017 , 33 ( 3 ): 509 - 522 . DOI: 10.1109/TRO.2016.2640183 http://doi.org/10.1109/TRO.2016.2640183 http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/7827048/ http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/7827048/

BLEDT G , POWELL M J , KATZ B , et al . MIT Cheetah 3:Design and control of a robust, dynamic quadruped robot [C ] //Proceedings of 2018 IEEE/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems. Madrid , Spain : IEEE , 2018 : 2245 - 2252 .

YANG C Y , YUAN K , ZHU Q G , et al. Multi-expert learning of adaptive legged locomotion [J ] . Science Robotics , 2020 , 5 ( 49 ): eabb 2174 .

LEE J , HWANGBO J , WELLHAUSEN L , et al. Learning quadrupedal locomotion over challenging terrain [J ] . Science Robotics , 2020 , 5 ( 47 ): eabc5986 . DOI: 10.1126/scirobotics.abc5986 http://doi.org/10.1126/scirobotics.abc5986 https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/scirobotics.abc5986 https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/scirobotics.abc5986 A learning-based locomotion controller enables a quadrupedal ANYmal robot to traverse challenging natural environments.

MIKI T , LEE J , HWANGBO J , et al. Learning robust perceptive locomotion for quadrupedal robots in the wild [J ] . Science Robotics , 2022 , 7 ( 62 ): eabk2822 . DOI: 10.1126/scirobotics.abk2822 http://doi.org/10.1126/scirobotics.abk2822 https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/scirobotics.abk2822 https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/scirobotics.abk2822 Legged robots that can operate autonomously in remote and hazardous environments will greatly increase opportunities for exploration into underexplored areas. Exteroceptive perception is crucial for fast and energy-efficient locomotion: Perceiving the terrain before making contact with it enables planning and adaptation of the gait ahead of time to maintain speed and stability. However, using exteroceptive perception robustly for locomotion has remained a grand challenge in robotics. Snow, vegetation, and water visually appear as obstacles on which the robot cannot step or are missing altogether due to high reflectance. In addition, depth perception can degrade due to difficult lighting, dust, fog, reflective or transparent surfaces, sensor occlusion, and more. For this reason, the most robust and general solutions to legged locomotion to date rely solely on proprioception. This severely limits locomotion speed because the robot has to physically feel out the terrain before adapting its gait accordingly. Here, we present a robust and general solution to integrating exteroceptive and proprioceptive perception for legged locomotion. We leverage an attention-based recurrent encoder that integrates proprioceptive and exteroceptive input. The encoder is trained end to end and learns to seamlessly combine the different perception modalities without resorting to heuristics. The result is a legged locomotion controller with high robustness and speed. The controller was tested in a variety of challenging natural and urban environments over multiple seasons and completed an hour-long hike in the Alps in the time recommended for human hikers.

ZHU P X , REN W . Multi-robot joint visual-inertial localization and 3-D moving object tracking [C ] //Proceedings of 2020 IEEE/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems.Las Vegas,NV,US:IEEE , 2020 : 11573 - 11580 .

PAPAIOANNOU S , KOLIOS P , PANAYIOTOU C G , et al . Cooperative simultaneous tracking and jamming for disabling a rogue drone [C ] //Proceedings of 2020 IEEE/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems. Las Vegas, NV , US : IEEE , 2020 : 7919 - 7926 .

HABIBI G , KINGSTON Z , XIE W , et al. Distributed centroid estimation and motion controllers for collective transport by multi-robot systems [C ] //Proceedings of 2015 IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation. Washington, D. C. , US : IEEE , 2015 : 1282 - 1288 .

HINOSTROZA M A , XU H T , SOARES C G . Cooperative operation of autonomous surface vehicles for maintaining formation in complex marine environment [J ] . Ocean Engineering , 2019 , 183 : 132 - 154 . DOI: 10.1016/j.oceaneng.2019.04.098 http://doi.org/10.1016/j.oceaneng.2019.04.098 https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0029801818310783 https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0029801818310783

XIAO X S , DUFEK J , WOODBURY T , et al. UAV assisted USV visual navigation for marine mass casualty incident response [C ] //Proceedings of 2017 IEEE/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems.Vancouver, Canada:IEEE , 2017 : 6105 - 6110 .

REYNOLDS C W . Flocks , herds and schools: a distributed behavioral model [J ] . ACM SIGGRAPH Computer Graphics , 1987 , 21 ( 4 ): 25 - 34 . DOI: 10.1145/37402.37406 http://doi.org/10.1145/37402.37406 https://dl.acm.org/doi/10.1145/37402.37406 https://dl.acm.org/doi/10.1145/37402.37406 The aggregate motion of a flock of birds, a herd of land animals, or a school of fish is a beautiful and familiar part of the natural world. But this type of complex motion is rarely seen in computer animation. This paper explores an approach based on simulation as an alternative to scripting the paths of each bird individually. The simulated flock is an elaboration of a particle systems, with the simulated birds being the particles. The aggregate motion of the simulated flock is created by a distributed behavioral model much like that at work in a natural flock; the birds choose their own course. Each simulated bird is implemented as an independent actor that navigates according to its local perception of the dynamic environment, the laws of simulated physics that rule its motion, and a set of behaviors programmed into it by the \"animator.\" The aggregate motion of the simulated flock is the result of the dense interaction of the relatively simple behaviors of the individual simulated birds.

COUZIN I D , KRAUSE J , JAMES R , et al. Collective memory and spatial sorting in animal groups [J ] . Journal of Theoretical Biology , 2002 , 218 ( 1 ): 1 - 11 . We present a self-organizing model of group formation in three-dimensional space, and use it to investigate the spatial dynamics of animal groups such as fish schools and bird flocks. We reveal the existence of major group-level behavioural transitions related to minor changes in individual-level interactions. Further, we present the first evidence for collective memory in such animal groups (where the previous history of group structure influences the collective behaviour exhibited as individual interactions change) during the transition of a group from one type of collective behaviour to another. The model is then used to show how differences among individuals influence group structure, and how individuals employing simple, local rules of thumb, can accurately change their spatial position within a group (e.g. to move to the centre, the front, or the periphery) in the absence of information on their current position within the group as a whole. These results are considered in the context of the evolution and ecological importance of animal groups.

VICSEK T , CZIRÓK A , BEN-JACOB E , et al. Novel type of phase transition in a system of self-driven particles [J ] . PhysicalReview Letters , 1995 , 75 ( 6 ): 1226 .

CUCKER F , SMALE S . Emergent behavior in flocks [J ] . IEEE Transactions on Automatic Control , 2007 , 52 ( 5 ): 852 - 862 . DOI: 10.1109/TAC.2007.895842 http://doi.org/10.1109/TAC.2007.895842 http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/4200853/ http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/4200853/

SPEARS W M , SPEARS D F , HAMANN J C , et al . Distributed, physics-based control of swarms of vehicles [J ] . Autonomous Robots , 2004 , 17 ( 2 ): 137 - 162 . DOI: 10.1023/B:AURO.0000033970.96785.f2 http://doi.org/10.1023/B:AURO.0000033970.96785.f2 http://link.springer.com/10.1023/B:AURO.0000033970.96785.f2 http://link.springer.com/10.1023/B:AURO.0000033970.96785.f2

VINYALS O , BABUSCHKIN I , CZARNECKI W M , et al . Grandmaster level in StarCraft II using multi-agent reinforcement learning [J ] . Nature , 2019 , 575 ( 7782 ): 350 - 354 . DOI: 10.1038/s41586-019-1724-z http://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-019-1724-z

WANG X J , SONG J X , QI P H , et al. SCC:an efficient deep reinforcement learning agent mastering the game of StarCraft II:arXiv : 2012 .13169[R ] . Ithaca,NY , US : Cornell University , 2020 :2012.13169.

LOWE R , WU Y , TAMAR A , et al. Multi-agent actor-critic for mixed cooperative-competitive environments [J ] . Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems , 2017 , 30 : 6382 - 6393 .

HOWARD A , PARKER L E , SUKHATME G S . Experiments with a large heterogeneous mobile robot team: exploration, mapping, deployment and detection [J ] . The International Journal of Robotics Research , 2006 , 25 ( 5/6 ): 431 - 447 . DOI: 10.1177/0278364906065378 http://doi.org/10.1177/0278364906065378 http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0278364906065378 http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0278364906065378 We describe the design and experimental validation of a large heterogeneous mobile robot team built for the DARPA Software for Distributed Robotics (SDR) program. The core challenge for the SDR program was to develop a multi-robot system capable of carrying out a specific mission: to deploy a large number of robots into an unexplored building, map the building interior, detect and track intruders, and transmit all of the above information to a remote operator. To satisfy these requirements, we developed a heterogeneous robot team consisting of approximately 80 robots. We sketch the key technical elements of this team, focusing on the novel aspects, and present selected results from supervised experiments conducted in a 600 m 2 indoor environment.