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PAKULAK Jr J M , CRAGIN S E . Super small-scale cookoff bomb [R ] . Washington, D.C. , US : Department of the Navy Washington D.C. , 1986 .

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DICKSON P M , ASAY B W , HENSON B F , et al. Measurement of phase change and thermal decomposition kinetics during cook off of PBX 9501 [C ] // Proceedings of AIP Conference Proceedings. AIP , 2000 , 505 ( 1 ): 837 - 840 .

AYDEMIR E , ULAS A . A numerical study on the thermal initiation of a confined explosive in 2-D geometry [J ] . Journal of Hazardous Materials , 2011 , 186 ( 1 ): 396 - 400 . DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2010.11.015 http://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2010.11.015 Insensitive munitions design against thermal stimuli like slow or fast cook-off has become a significant requirement for today's munitions. In order to achieve insensitive munitions characteristics, the response of the energetic material needs to be predicted against heating stimuli. In this study, a 2D numerical code was developed to simulate the slow and fast cook-off heating conditions of confined munitions and to obtain the response of the energetic materials. Computations were performed in order to predict the transient temperature distribution, the ignition time, and the location of ignition in the munitions. These predictions enable the designers to have an idea of when and at which location the energetic material ignites under certain adverse surrounding conditions. In the paper, the development of the code is explained and the numerical results are compared with available experimental and numerical data in the literature. Additionally, a parametric study was performed showing the effect of dimensional scaling of munitions and the heating rate on the ignition characteristics.Copyright © 2010 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

CHEN L , MA X , LU F , et al. Investigation of the cook-off processes of HMX-based mixed explosives [J ] . Central European Journal of Energetic Materials , 2014 , 11 ( 2 ): 199 - 218 .

PERRY W L , ZUCKER J , DICKSON P M , et al. Interplay of explosive thermal reaction dynamics and structuralconfinement [J ] . Journal of Applied Physics , 2007 , 101 ( 7 ): 074901 - 1 -074901-5. DOI: 10.1063/1.2713090 http://doi.org/10.1063/1.2713090 https://pubs.aip.org/jap/article/101/7/074901/918512/Interplay-of-explosive-thermal-reaction-dynamics https://pubs.aip.org/jap/article/101/7/074901/918512/Interplay-of-explosive-thermal-reaction-dynamics Explosives play a significant role in human affairs; however, their behavior in circumstances other than intentional detonation is poorly understood. Accidents may have catastrophic consequences, especially if additional hazardous materials are involved. Abnormal ignition stimuli, such as impact, spark, friction, and heat may lead to a very violent outcome, potentially including detonation. An important factor influencing the behavior subsequent to abnormal ignition is the strength and inertia of the vessel confining the explosive, i.e., the near-field structural/mechanical environment, also known as confinement (inertial or mechanical). However, a comprehensive and quantified understanding of how confinement affects reaction violence does not yet exist. In the research discussed here, we have investigated a wide range of confinement conditions and related the explosive response to the fundamentals of the combustion process in the explosive. In our experiments, a charge of an octahydrotetranitrotetrazine-based plastic bonded explosive (PBX 9501) was loaded into a gun assembly having variable confinement conditions and subjected to a heating profile. The exploding charge breached the confinement and accelerated a projectile down the gun barrel. High bandwidth pressure and volume measurements were made and a first-law analysis was used to obtain enthalpy and power from the raw data. These results were then used to quantify reaction violence. Enthalpy change and power ranged from 0−1.8 kJ and 0−12 MW for 300 mg charges, respectively. Below a confinement strength of 20 MPa, violence was found to decline precipitously with decreasing confinement, while the violence for the heaviest confinement experiments was found to be relatively constant. Both pressure and pressurization rate were found to have critical values to induce and sustain violent reaction.

PERRY W L , DICKSON P M , PARKER G R , et al. Quantification of reaction violence and combustion enthalpy of plastic bonded explosive 9501 under strong confinement [J ] . Journal of Applied Physics , 2005 , 97 ( 2 ): 023528 . DOI: 10.1063/1.1828220 http://doi.org/10.1063/1.1828220 https://pubs.aip.org/jap/article/97/2/023528/930535/Quantification-of-reaction-violence-and-combustion https://pubs.aip.org/jap/article/97/2/023528/930535/Quantification-of-reaction-violence-and-combustion The confinement experienced by an explosive during thermal self-initiation can substantially affect performance in terms of deflagration–to–detonation characteristics and explosion/detonation violence. To this end, we have developed an experiment to quantitatively observe enthalpy change and reaction violence in thermally initiated plastic bonded explosive (PBX) 9501. Traditionally, researchers attempt to quantify violence using terminal observations of fragment size, fragment velocity, and through subjective observations. In the work presented here, the explosive was loaded into a heated gun assembly where we subjected a 300 mg charge to a cook-off schedule and a range of static and inertial confinements. Static confinement was controlled using rupture disks calibrated at 34.5 and 138 MPa. The use of 3.15 and 6.3 g projectile masses provided a variation in inertial confinement. This was a regime of strong confinement; a significant fraction of the explosive energy was required to rupture the disk, and the projectile mass was large compared to the charge mass. The state variables pressure and volume were measured in the breech. From these data, we quantified both the reaction enthalpy change and energy release rate of the explosive on a microsecond time scale using a thermodynamic analyisis. We used these values to unambiguously quantify explosion violence as a function of confinement at a fixed cook-off schedule of 190 C for 1 h. P2τ, a measure of critical shock energy required for shock ignition of an adjacent explosive was also computed. We found variations in this confinement regime to have a weak effect on enthalpy change, power, violence and shock energy. Violence was approximately 100 times lower than detonating trinitrotoluene, but the measured shock energy approached the critical shock energy for initiating secondary high explosives.

RAE P J , BAUER C L , STENNETT C . Small scale thermal violence experiments for combined insensitive highexplosive and boostermaterials [EB/OL ] . http://www.osti.gov/scitech/biblio/1000930.2010 http://www.osti.gov/scitech/biblio/1000930.2010 http://www.osti.gov/scitech/biblio/1000930.2010.

SORBER S , STENNET C , GOLDSMITH M . Developments in a small scale test of violence [C ] // Proceedings of American Institute of Physics Conference Series. New York,NY , US : American Institute of Physics , 2012 , 1426 ( 1 ): 563 - 566 .

CHIDESTER S K , TARVER C M , GREEN L G , et al. On the violence of thermal explosion in solid explosives [J ] . Combustion & Flame , 1997 , 110 ( 1/2 ): 264 - 280 .

GARCIA F , FORBES J W , TARVER C M , et al. Pressure wave measurements from thermal cook-off of an hmx based high explosive pbx 9501 [C ] // Proceedings of AIP Conference Proceedings. New York,NY , US : American Institute of Physics , 2002 , 620 ( 1 ): 882 - 885 .

FORBES J W , GARCIA F , TARVER C M , et al. Pressure wave measurements during thermal explosion of HMX-based high explosives [R ] . Livermore,CA , US : Lawrence Livermore National , 2002 .

GARCIA F , VANDERSALL K S , FORBES J W , et al. Thermal cook-off experiments of the hmx based high explosive lx-04 to characterize violence with varying confinement [C ] // Proceedings of AIP Conference Proceedings. New York,NY , US : American Institute of Physics , 2006 , 845 ( 1 ): 1061 - 1064 .

MAIENSCHEIN J L , WARDELL J F . Deflagration behavior of pbxn-109 and composition b at high pressures and temperatures [R ] . Livermore,CA , US : Lawrence Livermore National Lab. , 2002 .

MAIENSCHEIN J L , WARDELL J F , DeHaven M R , et al. Deflagration of HMX-based explosives at high temperatures and pressures [J ] . Propellants, Explosives,Pyrotechnics: An International Journal Dealing with Scientific and Technological Aspects of Energetic Materials , 2004 , 29 ( 5 ): 287 - 295 .

寇永锋 , 陈朗 , 马欣 , 等 . 黑索今基含铝炸药烤燃实验和数值模拟 [J ] . 兵工学报 , 2019 , 40 ( 5 ): 979 - 989 .

KOU Y F , CHEN L , MA X , et al. Cook-off experimental an numerical simulation of rdx-based aluminized explosives [J ] . Acta Armamentarii , 2019 , 40 ( 5 ): 979 - 989 . (in Chinese)

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