ASAY B W . Shock wave science and technology reference library,Vol.5:non-shock initiation of explosives [M ] . Heidelberg,Baden-Württemberg, Germany:Springer , 2010 : 245 - 401 .

胡海波 , 傅华 , 李涛 , 等 . 压装密实炸药装药非冲击点火反应传播与烈度演化实验研究进展 [J ] . 爆炸与冲击 , 2020 , 40 ( 1 ): 011401 .

HU H B , FU H , LI T , et al . Progress in experimental studies on the evolution behaviors of non-shock initiation reaction in low porosity pressed explosive with confinement [J ] . Explosion and Shock Waves , 2020 , 40 ( 1 ): 011401 . (in Chinese)

马晗晔 , 王雨时 , 王光宇 . 国外不敏感炸药综述 [J ] . 兵器装备工程学报 , 2020 , 41 ( 5 ): 166 - 174 .

MA H Y , WANG Y S , WANG G Y . Summary of foreign insensitive explosives [J ] . Journal of Ordnance Equipment Engineering , 2020 , 41 ( 5 ): 166 - 174 . (in Chinese)

LEININGER L , DICKSON P , GRESSHOFF M , et al . IHE material and IHE subassembly qualification test description and criteria [R ] . LA-UR-15-29238,NM , US : Los Alamos National Laboratory , 2021 .

PARKER G R , PETERSON P D , ASAY B W , et al . Examination of morphological changes that affect gas permeation through thermally damaged explosives [J ] . Propellants,Explosives,Pyrotechnics , 2020 , 9 ( 5 ): 274 - 281 .

PARKER G R , DICKSON P M , ASAY B W , et al . Understanding the mechanisms leading to gas permeation in thermally damaged PBX 9501 [J ] . AIP Conference Proceedings , 2006 , 845 : 1101 - 1104 .

PETERSON P D , MANG J T , ASAY B W . Quantitative analysis of damage in an HMX (octahydro-1,3,5,7-tetranitro-1,3,5,7-tetrazonic) based composite explosive subjected to a linear thermal gradient [J ] . Journal of Applied Physics , 2005 , 97 ( 9 ): 093507 . DOI: 10.1063/1.1879072 http://doi.org/10.1063/1.1879072 https://pubs.aip.org/jap/article/97/9/093507/913653/Quantitative-analysis-of-damage-in-an-octahydro-1 https://pubs.aip.org/jap/article/97/9/093507/913653/Quantitative-analysis-of-damage-in-an-octahydro-1 The microstructure within a slowly heated, consolidated explosive will be influenced by both physical changes and chemical reactions prior to thermal ignition. Thermal expansion, exothermic decomposition, endothermic phase change, and increased binder viscosity play significant roles in the cook-off to detonation. To further explore the details of this intricate cook-off process, we have conducted a series of experiments in which a carefully controlled temperature gradient has been applied along a cylinder of PBX 9501 [94.9/2.5/2.5/0.1-wt % octahydro-1,3,5,7-tetranitro-1,3,5,7-tetrazocine (HMX)/Estane 5703/a eutectic mixture of bis(2,2 dinitropropyl) acetal and bis(2,2-dinitropropyl) formal [abbreviated BDNPA-F]/Irganox] and maintained for a specified amount of time. After heating and subsequent cooling of the PBX 9501, the sample morphology has been probed with polarized light microscopy and small-angle x-ray scattering. Using these techniques we have quantitatively characterized the particle morphology, porosity, and chemical state of the explosive as a function of position, and therefore thermal treatment. Results of the analyses clearly show that thermal damage in PBX 9501 can be classified into two separate temperature regimes—an initial low-temperature regime (155–174°C) dominated by the endothermic β-δ crystalline phase change, thermal expansion, and Ostwald ripening, and a high-temperature regime (175–210°C) dominated by exothermic chemical decomposition. The results further show the complex interplay between the evolving sample morphology and the chemical reactions leading to a potential thermal self-ignition in the explosive.

WILLEY T M , LAUDERBACH L , GAGLIARDI F , et al . Mesoscale evolution of voids and microstructural changes in HMX-based explosives during heating through the β-δ phase transition [J ] . Journal of Applied Physics , 2015 , 118 ( 5 ): 055901 . DOI: 10.1063/1.4927614 http://doi.org/10.1063/1.4927614 https://pubs.aip.org/jap/article/118/5/055901/140811/Mesoscale-evolution-of-voids-and-microstructural https://pubs.aip.org/jap/article/118/5/055901/140811/Mesoscale-evolution-of-voids-and-microstructural HMX-based explosives LX-10 and PBX-9501 were heated through the β-δ phase transition. Ultra-small angle x-ray scattering (USAXS) and molecular diffraction were simultaneously recorded as the HMX was heated. Mesoscale voids and structure dramatically change promptly with the β-δ phase transition, rather than with other thermal effects. Also, x-ray induced damage, observed in the USAXS, occurs more readily at elevated temperatures; as such, the dose was reduced to mitigate this effect. Optical microscopy performed during a similar heating cycle gives an indication of changes on longer length scales, while x-ray microtomography, performed before and after heating, shows the character of extensive microstructural damage resulting from the temperature cycle and solid-state phase transition.

GLASCOE E A , HSU P C , SPRINGER H K , et al . The response of the HMX-based material PBXN-9 to thermal insults: thermal decomposition kinetics and morphological changes [J ] . Thermochimica Acta , 2010 , 515 ( 1/2 ): 58 - 66 . DOI: 10.1016/j.tca.2010.12.021 http://doi.org/10.1016/j.tca.2010.12.021 https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0040603111000049 https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0040603111000049

PARKER G R , HEATWOLEA E M , HOLMES M D , et al . Deflagration-to-detonation transition in hot HMX and HMX-based polymer-bonded explosives [J ] . Combustion and Flame , 2020 , 215 : 295 - 308 . DOI: 10.1016/j.combustflame.2020.01.040 http://doi.org/10.1016/j.combustflame.2020.01.040 https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0010218020300523 https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0010218020300523

ZHOU M N , CHEN S S , ZOU H M , et al . Investigation on the thermal decomposition performance and long-term storage performance of HNIW-based PBXs through accelerated aging tests [J ] . Journal of Energetic Materials , 2020 , 38 ( 1 ): 68 - 82 . DOI: 10.1080/07370652.2019.1663564 http://doi.org/10.1080/07370652.2019.1663564 https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/07370652.2019.1663564 https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/07370652.2019.1663564

ZHONG K , BU R P , JIAO F B , et al . Toward the defect engineering of energetic materials:a review of the effect of crystal defects on the sensitivity [J ] . Chemical Engineering Journal , 2021 ( 10 ): 132310 .

KHASAINOV B A , ERMOLAEV B S , PRESLES H N , et al . On the effect of grain size on shock sensitivity of heterogeneous high explosives [J ] . Shock Waves , 1997 , 7 ( 2 ): 89 - 105 . DOI: 10.1007/s001930050066 http://doi.org/10.1007/s001930050066 http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s001930050066 http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s001930050066

BELLITTO V J , MELNIK M I , SHERLOCKN M H , et al . Microstructure effects on the detonation velocity of a heterogeneous high-explosive [J ] . Journal of Energetic Materials , 2018 , 36 ( 4 ): 485 - 492 . DOI: 10.1080/07370652.2018.1495276 http://doi.org/10.1080/07370652.2018.1495276 https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/07370652.2018.1495276 https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/07370652.2018.1495276

SALVO L , SUERY M , MARMOTTANT A , et al . 3D imaging in material science: application of X-ray tomography [J ] . Comptes Rendus Physique , 2011 , 11 ( 9/10 ): 641 - 649 . DOI: 10.1016/j.crhy.2010.12.003 http://doi.org/10.1016/j.crhy.2010.12.003 https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1631070510001660 https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1631070510001660

SMIRNOV E B , MUZYRYA A K , KOSTITSYN O V , et al . Investigation of micro-,meso-,and macrostructure of the condensed heterogeneous explosives using synchrotron radiation [J ] . Bulletin of the Russian Academy of Sciences Physics , 2015 , 79 ( 1 ): 20 - 25 . DOI: 10.3103/S1062873815010293 http://doi.org/10.3103/S1062873815010293 http://link.springer.com/10.3103/S1062873815010293 http://link.springer.com/10.3103/S1062873815010293

WELLE E J , MOLEK C D , WIXOM R R , et al . Microstructural effects on the ignition behavior of various HMX materials [J ] . Journal of Physics:Conference Series , 2014 , 500 ( 5 ): 052049 . DOI: 10.1088/1742-6596/500/5/052049 http://doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/500/5/052049 https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1742-6596/500/5/052049 https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1742-6596/500/5/052049

PALMAS P , BOTZANOWSKI T , GUERAIN M , et al . Size determination of porosity inclusions in an organic solid material by 1H NMR diffusion and SEM-FIB experiments:the TATB case [J ] . Journal of Physical Chemistry B , 2016 , 120 ( 17 ): 4152 - 4159 . DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpcb.6b02176 http://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jpcb.6b02176 https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acs.jpcb.6b02176 https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acs.jpcb.6b02176

王龙 , 冯国林 , 李志强 , 等 . X射线断层扫描在材料力学行为研究中的应用 [J ] . 强度与环境 , 2017 , 44 ( 6 ): 43 - 56 .

WANG L , FENG G L , LI Z Q , et al . Applications of X-ray computed tomography to study the mechanical behaviors of materials [J ] . Structure & Environment Engineering , 2017 , 44 ( 6 ): 43 - 56 . (in Chinese)

MAIRE E , WITHERS P J . Quantitative X-ray tomography [J ] . International Materials Reviews , 2014 , 59 ( 1 ): 1 - 43 . DOI: 10.1179/1743280413Y.0000000023 http://doi.org/10.1179/1743280413Y.0000000023 http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1179/1743280413Y.0000000023 http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1179/1743280413Y.0000000023

LIU D , GLUDOVATZ B , BARNARD H S , et al . Damage tolerance of nuclear graphite at elevated temperatures [J ] . Nature Communications , 2017 , 8 : 15942 . DOI: 10.1038/ncomms15942 http://doi.org/10.1038/ncomms15942 Nuclear-grade graphite is a critically important high-temperature structural material for current and potentially next generation of fission reactors worldwide. It is imperative to understand its damage-tolerant behaviour and to discern the mechanisms of damage evolution under in-service conditions. Here we perform in situ mechanical testing with synchrotron X-ray computed micro-tomography at temperatures between ambient and 1,000 degrees C on a nuclear-grade Gilsocarbon graphite. We find that both the strength and fracture toughness of this graphite are improved at elevated temperature. Whereas this behaviour is consistent with observations of the closure of microcracks formed parallel to the covalent-sp(2)-bonded graphene layers at higher temperatures, which accommodate the more than tenfold larger thermal expansion perpendicular to these layers, we attribute the elevation in strength and toughness primarily to changes in the residual stress state at 800-1,000 degrees C, specifically to the reduction in significant levels of residual tensile stresses in the graphite that are ` frozen-in' following processing.

杨婷婷 , 赵雨晴 , 吕文娟 , 等 . 基于X线同步辐射吸收CT和X线相衬CT牙周炎大鼠模型离体上颌骨成像 [J ] . 中国医学影像技术 , 2020 , 36 ( 5 ): 653 - 658 .

YANG T T , ZHAO Y Q , LÜ W J , et al . Imaging of vitro maxilla in rat periodontitis models based on X-ray absorption-contrast CT and X-ray phase-contrast CT [J ] . Chinese Journal of Medical Imaging Technology , 2020 , 36 ( 5 ): 653 - 658 . (in Chinese)

YEAGER J D , MANNER V W , STULL J A , et al . Importance of microstructural features in mechanical response of cast-cured HMX formulations [J ] . AIP Conference Proceedings , 2018 , 1979 : 070033 .

MAGGI F , GARG P . Fragmentation of ammonium nitrate particles under thermal cycling [J ] . Propellants,Explosives, Pyrotechnics , 2018 , 43 ( 3 ): 315 - 319 . DOI: 10.1002/prep.v43.3 http://doi.org/10.1002/prep.v43.3 https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/toc/15214087/43/3 https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/toc/15214087/43/3

YEAGER J D , KUETTNER L A , DUQUE A L , et al . Microcomputed X-Ray tomographic imaging and image processing for microstructural characterization of explosives [J ] . Materials , 2020 , 13 ( 20 ): 4517 . DOI: 10.3390/ma13204517 http://doi.org/10.3390/ma13204517 https://www.mdpi.com/1996-1944/13/20/4517 https://www.mdpi.com/1996-1944/13/20/4517 Microstructural characterization of composite high explosives (HEs) has become increasingly important over the last several decades in association with the development of high fidelity mesoscale modeling and an improved understanding of ignition and detonation processes. HE microstructure influences not only typical material properties (e.g., thermal, mechanical) but also reactive behavior (e.g., shock sensitivity, detonation wave shape). A detailed nondestructive 3D examination of the microstructure has generally been limited to custom-engineered samples or surrogates due to poor contrast between the composite constituents. Highly loaded (>90 wt%) HE composites such as plastic-bonded explosives (PBX) are especially difficult. Here, we present efforts to improve measurement quality by using single and dual-energy microcomputed X-ray tomography and state-of-the-art image processing techniques to study a broad set of HE materials. Some materials, such as PBX 9502, exhibit suitable contrast and resolution for an automatic segmentation of the HE from the polymer binder and the voids. Other composite HEs had varying levels of success in segmentation. Post-processing techniques that used commercially available algorithms to improve the segmentation quality of PBX 9501 as well as zero-density defects such as cracks and voids could be easily segmented for all samples. Aspects of the materials that lend themselves well to this type of measurement are discussed.

PATTERSON B M , CORDES N L , HENDERSON K , et al . In situ laboratory-based transmission X-Ray microscopy and tomography of material deformation at the nanoscale [J ] . Experimental Mechanics , 2016 , 56 ( 9 ): 1585 - 1597 . DOI: 10.1007/s11340-016-0197-3 http://doi.org/10.1007/s11340-016-0197-3

CHEN L , WU L H , LIU Y , et al . In situ observation of void evolution in 1,3,5-triamino-2,4,6-trinitrobenzene under compression by synchrotron radiation X-ray nano-computed tomography [J ] . Journal of Synchrotron Radiation , 2020 , 27 ( 1 ): 127 - 133 . DOI: 10.1107/S1600577519014309 http://doi.org/10.1107/S1600577519014309 https://scripts.iucr.org/cgi-bin/paper?S1600577519014309 https://scripts.iucr.org/cgi-bin/paper?S1600577519014309 The formation and development of voids in 1,3,5-triamino-2,4,6-trinitrobenzene crystals under compression were characterized in situ by X-ray nano-computed tomography. Benefiting from high spatial resolution (30 nm) and excellent imaging contrast, the X-ray nano-computed tomography images revealed the presence of a small fraction of inhomogeneous structures in the original crystal (volume ratio ∼1.2%). Such an inhomogeneity acts as a nucleation of voids and produces stress concentration during compression, which leads to continuous growth of the voids under loading. Meanwhile, the results further reveal that the developing voids are not isotropic: voids with higher surface roughness and irregular structures are easier to break and form new micro-voids. These new voids with higher irregular structures are weaker and easier to break into smaller ones compared with the originals, leading to the development of voids along these weak zones. Finally large voids form. The experiments allow direct investigation of void formation and development, which helps in studying the mechanisms of void development and energetic materials deterioration during manufacturing and transporting.

PARKER G R , EASTWOOD D S , STORM M , et al . 4D micro-scale,phase-contrast X-ray imaging and computed tomography of HMX-based polymer-bonded explosives during thermal runaway [J ] . Combustion and Flame , 2021 , 226 ( 56 ): 478 - 489 . DOI: 10.1016/j.combustflame.2020.12.025 http://doi.org/10.1016/j.combustflame.2020.12.025 https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0010218020305745 https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0010218020305745

BERGHOUT H L , SON S F , SKIDMORE C B , et al . Combustion of damaged PBX 9501 explosive [J ] . Thermochimica Acta , 2002 , 384 ( 1/2 ): 261 - 277 . DOI: 10.1016/S0040-6031(01)00802-4 http://doi.org/10.1016/S0040-6031(01)00802-4 https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0040603101008024 https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0040603101008024

JU Y B , OU Z C , DUAN Z P , et al . The ubiquitiformal characterization of the mesostructures of polymer-bonded explosives [J ] . Materials , 2019 , 12 ( 22 ): 3763 DOI: 10.3390/ma12223763 http://doi.org/10.3390/ma12223763 https://www.mdpi.com/1996-1944/12/22/3763 https://www.mdpi.com/1996-1944/12/22/3763 A nesting ubiquitiform (NU) approach was developed to characterize the mesostructural features of polymer-bonded explosives (PBXs), and then used to predicate some equivalent physical properties of PBXs, which can also be expected to be extended to other composites with complicated internal mesostructures. To verify the availability, two NU models for two kinds of PBX with different compositions are presented, which are PBX 9501 and LX-17, based on which, the equivalent thermal conductivities were calculated. Particularly, it is so encouraging that an analytical expression of the equivalent thermal conductivity was obtained only under a simply assumption of homogeneity. Moreover, it was found that the numerical results calculated by both the recursive algorithm and the analytical expression were in good agreement with the experimental data. In addition, it is also shown that such a physical property as the equivalent thermal conductivity is indeed independent of the meso-configuration of the location distribution of the explosive particles and the voids inside the PBX, which seems consistent with the common expectations and lays the foundations for the application of ubiquitiform to investigating some equivalent properties of composites.

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寇永锋 , 陈朗 , 马欣 , 等 . 黑索今基含铝炸药烤燃实验和数值模拟 [J ] . 兵工学报 , 2019 , 40 ( 5 ): 987 - 989 .

KOU Y F , CHEN L , MA X , et al . Cook-off experimental and numerical simulation of RDX-based aluminized explosives [J ] . Acta Armamentarii , 2019 , 40 ( 5 ): 987 - 989 . (in Chinese)