Study on the Damage Effect and Debris Cloud Characteristics of Reactive Fragments of High-entropy Alloys

doi:10.12382/bgxb.2025.0482

Abstract

Abstract:

Energetic high-entropy alloys (EHEAs) hold significant promise as active fragmentation materials for enhancing the penetration, ignition, and damage efficacy of weaponry and ammunition systems. Nevertheless, a pressing need exists for in-depth investigations into their damage mechanisms and corresponding effects. To investigate the damage effects of EHEAs and the characteristics of the fragment cloud during the deflagration process, a two-stage light gas gun is employed to conduct damage experiments on spaced aluminum targets, utilizing the TiZrHfTa_0.5 high-entropy alloy at varying impact velocities. High-speed photography is utilized to document the perforation deflagration behavior, and theoretical analyses are performed to elucidate the formation process of the debris cloud behind the target. Additionally, smoothed particle hydrodynamics (SPH) numerical simulations are carried out to supplement the experimental findings. The experimental results demonstrate that EHEAs exhibit intense exothermic detonation behavior upon exceeding a critical impact velocity. As the penetration velocity increases, a positive correlation is observed between the impact velocity and the diameter of the entry hole on the target, leading to an augmented penetrative and damage area on the rear target. This phenomenon can be attributed to the exponential growth in the number of fragments within the debris cloud with increasing velocity, and the velocity gradient significantly promotes the release of energetic characteristics, thereby magnifying the overall damage effects. Based on a comprehensive theoretical analysis and experimental data, a modified empirical formula for predicting the perforation diameter is proposed. Fragment size analysis further reveals that the refinement of fragments facilitates the synergistic interaction between chemical and kinetic energy, ultimately enhancing the damage performance of EHEAs.

Key words: high entropy alloy, active fragments, damage to spaced targets, SPH simulation

WANG Shengfang, CHANG Hui, JIAO Zhiming, YIN Yunfei, ZHANG Tuanwei, LI Zhiqiang, WANG Zhihua. Study on the Damage Effect and Debris Cloud Characteristics of Reactive Fragments of High-entropy Alloys[J]. Acta Armamentarii, 2025, 46(10): 250482-.

Figures/Tables 17

Fig.1 Exterior view of ingots, bullets and stocks

Fig.2 Schematic diagram of the two-stage light gas gun experiment

Table 1 Experimental parameters of Two-stage Light Gas Gun

弹丸质量/g	气室气体	气室气压/ MPa	泵管气体	泵管气压/ MPa	活塞材质	速度/ (m·s^-1)
1.57	N₂	2.02	N₂	0.87	铝合金+PC	584
1.53	N₂	10.93	N₂	0.17	PC	1470
1.47	N₂	17.03	N₂	0.15	PC	2500

Fig.3 Schematic diagram of damage to the target plate at different speeds

Table 2 Post-effect target perforation area

速度/(m·s^-1)	584	1470	2500
面积/mm²	170	308	986

Fig.4 Typical high-speed photographic images of the cloud of debris after impact at different speeds

Fig.5 Schematic diagram of the damage of the energetic fragment spaced target

Fig.6 Modeling of 2A12 aluminum alloy target plate and TiZrHfTa0.5 high entropy alloy projectile

Table 3 Physical parameters of high entropy alloy elements

金属种类	C₀/ (km·s^-1)	ρ/ (kg·m^-3)	S	γ₀
Ti	4.5	4.506	1.5	1.2
Zr	3.9	6.511	1.6	1.5
Hf	3.5	13.31	1.8	1.3
Ta	3.3	16.65	2.0	1.6
TiZrHfTa_0.5	4.413	9.339	1.189	1.137

Table 4 Constitutive parameters of TiZrHfTa0.5 refractory high entropy alloy

参数	数值	参数	数值
E/GPa	63.5	n	1.18
G/GPa	23.87	m	0.55
ρ/(kg·m^-3)	9.339	${\stackrel{·}{\epsilon }}_{0}$	10^-3
A/MPa	775	T_m/K	1893
B/MPa	1124	ε_c	0.26
C	0.68

Fig.7 Schematic diagram and experimental photos of debris cloud simulation at 584m/s

Fig.8 Debris cloud morphology under 1470m/s impact

Table 4 Number of fragments in the debris cloud at various penetration velocities

碎片体积/ mm³	速度/(m·s^-1)
碎片体积/ mm³	584	1470	2500
>1	7	210	822
0.1~1	22	231	416
0.01~0.1	14	68	176
<0.01	6	34	62
总计	49	543	1476

Fig.9 Piercing diameter of the target at different speeds

Fig.10 Debris cloud morphology under 2500m/s impact

Table 5 Statistics of maximum scattering Angle of fragments

速度/ (m·s^-1)	靶板碎片/ (°)	弹丸碎片/ (°)	d_b,c/ mm	d_b/ mm
584	24.79	15.35	-	-
1470	41.23	17.39	93.38	109.3
2500	50.02	31.03	180.43	>170

Fig.11 Proportion of fragments of different sizes

References 31

[1]	AMES R. Energy release characteristics of impact initiated energetic material[J]. MRS Online Proceeding Library Archive, 2005, 896(3): 321-333.
[2]	谢剑文, 李沛豫, 王海福, 等. 活性破片撞击油箱毁伤行为与机理[J]. 兵工学报, 2022, 43(7):1565-1577. doi: 10.12382/bgxb.2021.0384
	XIE J W, LI P Y, WANG H F, et al. Damage behaviors and mechanisms of reactive fragments impacting fuel tanks[J]. Acta Armamentarii, 2022, 43(7):1565-1577. (in Chinese) doi: 10.12382/bgxb.2021.0384
[3]	周晟, 郭萌萌, 张甲浩, 等. 活性破片作用后效靶板耦合能量分布特征[J]. 兵工学报, 2024, 45(S1):81-88. doi: 10.12382/bgxb.2024.0526
	ZHOU S, GUO M M, ZHANG J H, et al. Coupling energy distribution characteristics of reactive fragments penetrating rear target plate[J]. Acta Armamentarii, 2024, 45(S1):81-88. (in Chinese) doi: 10.12382/bgxb.2024.0526
[4]	SONG Y, TANG E, WANG R, et al. Mechanical behavior and reaction energy release mechanism of Al/PTFE-based energetic materials under impact load[J]. Materials Chemistry and Physics, 2025, 345:131209-131209. doi: 10.1016/j.matchemphys.2025.131209 URL
[5]	QU Y Z, ZHANG M H, LI G, et al. Interfacial charge mismatch enhanced energetic crystals for efficient energy-release and improved safety[J]. Science China Materials, 2022, 66(4):1632-1640. doi: 10.1007/s40843-022-2278-5
[6]	SONG Y, TANG E, HAN Y, et al. Response characteristics of Al/PTFE reactive material with aluminum honeycomb framework under impact loading[J]. Journal of Materials Research and Technology, 2025, 369:349-359.
[7]	刘晓俊, 任会兰, 宁建国. Zr-W多功能含能结构材料的制备及动态压缩特性[J]. 复合材料学报, 2016, 33(10):2297-2303.
	LIU X J, RREN H L, NING J G. Preparation and dynamic compression properties of Zr-W multifunctional energetic structural materials[J]. Journal of Composite Materials, 2016, 33(10): 2297-2303. (in Chinese)
[8]	LUO Y M, HUANG J K, YU X Q, et al. The effect of crystalline structure on the mechanical behavior in Zr-based amorphous materials: A molecular dynamics simulation[J]. Journal of Non-Crystalline Solids, 2023, 622: 22667.
[9]	FENG Z Y, GENG H S, ZHUANG Y Z, et al. Progress, Applications, and Challenges of Amorphous Alloys: A Critical Review[J]. Inorganics, 2024, 12(9):232. doi: 10.3390/inorganics12090232 URL
[10]	YEH J W, CHEN S K, Lin S J, et al. Nanostructured high-entropy alloys with multiple principal elements: novel alloy design concepts and outcomes[J]. Advanced Engineering Materials, 2004, 6(5):299-303. doi: 10.1002/adem.v6:5 URL
[11]	WANG R, Tang Y, Li S, et al. Effect of lattice distortion on the diffusion behavior of high-entropy alloys[J]. Journal of Alloys and Compounds, 2020, 825:154099. doi: 10.1016/j.jallcom.2020.154099 URL
[12]	ZHANG Z R, ZHANG H, TANG Y, et al. Microstructure, mechanical properties and energetic characteristics of a novel high-entropy alloy HfZrTiTa_0.53[J]. Materials & Design, 2017, 133:435-443.
[13]	JI W, ZOU Q, YIN X, et al. Dynamic mechanical behavior and energy release effect of a novel Nb₁₇Zr₃₃Ti₁₇W₃₃ high-entropy alloy under impact load[J]. Metals, 2023, 13(12):2013. doi: 10.3390/met13122013 URL
[14]	MA Y S, ZHOU L, ZHANG K C, et al. Effects of cerium doping on the mechanical properties and energy-releasing behavior of high-entropy alloys[J]. Materials, 2022, 15(20):7332. doi: 10.3390/ma15207332 URL
[15]	陈海华, 张先锋, 熊玮, 等. WFeNiMo高熵合金动态力学行为及侵彻性能研究[J]. 力学学报, 2020, 52(5):1443-1453. doi: 10.6052/0459-1879-20-166
	CHEN H H, ZHANG X F, XIONG W, et al. Dynamic mechanical behavior and penetration performance of wfenimo high-entropy alloy[J]. Chinese Journal of Theoretical and Applied Mechanics, 2020, 52(5):1443-1453. (in Chinese)
[16]	GUO Y S, LIU R, RAN C, et al. Ignition and energy release characteristics of energetic high-entropy alloy HfZrTiTa_0.2Al_0.8 under dynamic loading[J]. Journal of Materials Research and Technology, 2024, 28:2819-2830. doi: 10.1016/j.jmrt.2023.12.198 URL
[17]	MENG J Y, SHEN B H, WANG J, et al. Energy-release behavior of TiZrNbV high-entropy alloy[J]. Intermetallics, 2023, 162:108036. doi: 10.1016/j.intermet.2023.108036 URL
[18]	TANG W Q, ZHANG K, CHEN T Y, et al. Microstructural evolution and energetic characteristics of TiZrHfTa_0.7W_0.3 high-entropy alloy under high strain rates and its application in high-velocity penetration[J]. Journal of Materials Science & Technology, 2023, 132:144-153.
[19]	苏发章, 冀功祥, 景彤, 等. EFP模拟弹靶后碎片云特性数值模拟研究[J]. 弹箭与制导学报, 2024, 44(4):33-45, 71. doi: 10.15892/j.cnki.djzdxb.2024.04.005
	SU F Z, JI G X, JING T, et al. Numerical simulation of debris cloud characteristics behind EFP projectile target[J]. Journal of Projectiles, Rockets, Missiles and Guidance, 2024, 44(4):33-45, 71. (in Chinese)
[20]	HAKIM A, MESPOULET J, PAUL D. On the effect of projectile material on damage induced to aluminum target under hypervelocity impact[J]. International Journal of Impact Engineering, 2025, 202:105326. doi: 10.1016/j.ijimpeng.2025.105326 URL
[21]	张周然. HfZrTiTa_x高熵合金含能结构材料的组织结构与力学性能研究[D]. 长沙: 国防科技大学, 2017.
	ZHANG Z R. Microstructure and mechanical properties of HfZrTiTa_x high-entropy alloys energetic structural materials[D]. Changsha: National University of Defense Technology, 2017. (in Chinese)
[22]	DAVID R S. Hypervelocity impact in thin sheets, semi-infinite targets at 15km/s[C]// Proceedings of AIAA Hypervelocity Impact Conference, Cincinnati, OH, USA: AIAA, 1969: 378.
[23]	NYSMITH C R, DENARDO B P. Experimental investigations of momentum transfer associated with impact into thin aluminum targets[R]. California, US: Ames Research Center, 1969: D-5492.
[24]	周晟, 张甲浩, 余庆波. 金属基活性破片侵彻间隔铝靶作用行为[J]. 兵工学报, 2023, 44(8):2263-2272. doi: 10.12382/bgxb.2022.0232
	ZHOU S, ZHANG J H, YU Q B, et al. Behaviors of metal-based reactive fragments penetrating spaced aluminum targets[J]. Acta Armamentarii, 2023, 44(8):2263-2272. (in Chinese) doi: 10.12382/bgxb.2022.0232
[25]	BAI Y L, JOHNSON W. Plugging: physical understanding and energy absorption[J]. Metals Technology, 1982, 9(1):182-190. doi: 10.1179/030716982803285945 URL
[26]	LANGSETH M, LARSEN P K. The behaviour of square steel plates subjected to a circular blunt ended Load[J]. IntJ ImpactEng, 1992, 12(4):617-638.
[27]	刘沫言. 带壳装药的破片撞击和冲击波感度研究[D]. 沈阳: 沈阳理工大学, 2020.
	LIU M Y. Study on fragment impact and shock wave sensitivity of shell charge[D]. Shenyang: Shenyang University of Technology, 2020. (in Chinese)
[28]	JOHNSON G R, COOK W H. A constitutive model and data for metals subjected to large strains, high strain rates and high temperatures[C]// Proceedings of the 7th International Symposium on Ballistics. Hague, the Netherlands: IBC, 1983: 541-547.
[29]	邸德宁, 陈小伟. 碎片云SPH方法数值模拟中的材料失效模型[J]. 爆炸与冲击, 2018, 38(5): 948-956.
	DI D N, CHEN X W. Material failure model in numerical simulation of SPH method for fragment cloud[J]. Explosion and Shock Waves, 2018, 38(5):948-956. (in Chinese)
[30]	HUANG Y H, GAO J H, WANG S Z, et al. Influence of tantalum composition on mechanical behavior and deformation mechanisms of TiZrHfTax high entropy alloys[J]. Journal of Alloys and Compounds, 2022, 903: 163796. doi: 10.1016/j.jallcom.2022.163796 URL
[31]	REN K R, MA R, WANG Z, et al. Grain size dependence of TiZrNbV spallation and impact-energy-release behavior[J]. International Journal of Mechanical Sciences, 2025, 293:110164. doi: 10.1016/j.ijmecsci.2025.110164 URL